Crop Production and Management

"Agriculture is an applied biological science which deals with the production of plants (agronomy) and raising of livestock (animal husbandry) for human use."

1.0Introduction

All living organisms require food for their growth and survival. Food is the combination of various organic and inorganic substances which are capable of providing energy for the various metabolic activities. The food supplies carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals required by our body. The two major sources of food are the plants and animals which are obtained from agriculture and animal husbandry. In present time, due to the tremendous increase of human population, demand of food and shelter has also increased. Higher grain output can be achieved by bringing more land under cultivation. The other possibility is to increase production efficiency of both plants and animals. Increase in production can be brought about by the development and use of improved varieties with high yield and better managerial practices (both pre and post-harvest). It is important that food production should be increased without degrading our environment and disturbing natural balance. This is possible through genetic improvement of crop plants (a second green revolution) and domesticated animals and adopting sustainable agriculture.

• The introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds after 1965 & increased use of fertilizers & irrigation are collectively known as green revolution. It helped in increasing the production needed to make India self-sufficient in food grains.
• Till 10,000 B.C. people were nomadic. They were wandering in groups from place to place in search of food and shelter. They ate raw fruits and vegetables and started hunting animals for food. Later, they could cultivate land and produce rice, wheat and other food crops. Thus, was born Agriculture.

Why do we have to eat food and how can we provide food to a large number of people in our country?

• Food provides energy to living organisms and this energy is utilized by the organisms for carrying out their various body functions. So, we have to eat food. In order to provide food for a large population, food has to be produced on a large scale, for this, regular production, proper management and distribution is necessary.

Food eaten is the combination of organic and inorganic substances from which organisms derive energy and materials for growth and maintenance of their body.

Functions of food

Food is required by the body for the following purposes : (i) For energy (ii) For growth (iii) For protection (iv) For repairing of injured and damaged body part

2.0Crops

Plants of same kind which are grown and cultivated at one place on a large scale are known as crops. Different types of crops require different climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and rainfall. Crops are divided into two main groups on the basis of growing season.

Kharif crops: The crops which are sown in the rainy season are called Kharif crops. e.g. Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut and cotton.

Rabi crops: The crops grown in the winter season (October to March) are called Rabi crops. E.g. Wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed.

• Cereal crops are rich in carbohydrate and thus provide energy. e.g. Rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, millets. Paddy cannot be grown in the winter season as it requires a lot of water. Therefore, it is grown only in rainy season.
• Pulses are rich in protein and thus helpful for body building. e.g. Gram, moong, pea, lentil (masoor), urad, pigeon pea (arhar). Pulses and vegetables are grown during summer at many places.
• Oil seed crops are rich in oil and fatty acids and thus provide energy. e.g. Groundnut, sunflower, soyabean, mustard, sesame (til).

• Vegetable crops provide vitamins and minerals along with small quantities of carbohydrate, protein and oils. e.g. Spinach, Cabbage, Potatoes and Carrot.

Fodder crops provide green fodder to the cattle. e.g. Berseem, oat, Sudan grass.

3.0Agricultural practices

Activities which are carried out by the farmer to ensure good crop yield, in particular sequence, till the crop mature are known as agriculture practices. (1) Soil preparation (a) Ploughing (b) Levelling (2) Sowing (3) Adding manure and fertilizers (4) Irrigation (5) Protection from weeds (6) Harvesting (7) Storage

Soil preparation:

Various processes are included in it.

• Ploughing or tilling : Process of loosening and turning of the soil is called ploughing or tilling. Advantages of ploughing: (i) It allows mixing of manure and fertilizer more uniformly. (ii) Seeds are also able to germinate more easily. (iii) It allows good root penetration so that the plant is held firmly to the soil. (iv) Roots are able to breathe more easily. (v) Loosened soil promotes growth of worms and microbes which help to maintain the fertility of soil.

• Agriculture implements : The tools required for carrying out the activities involved in the cultivation of plants are known as agriculture implements.
• Plough : It contains triangular iron strip called ploughshare and main part of the plough is a long log of wood called plough shaft. One end of the shaft is handle and other end is attached to a beam which is placed on the bulls necks. One pair of bulls and a man can easily operate the plough. The indigenous wooden plough is increasingly being replaced by iron ploughs nowdays.
  
  A Plough
• Hoe: This is used for removing weeds and for loosening the soil. It has a long rod of wood or iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of iron is fixed to one of its ends which works like a blade. It is pulled by animals.
• Cultivator: Ploughing can also be done by tractor driven cultivator. The use of cultivator saves labour and time.

Why does the soil need to be turned and loosened?

Since only a few centimetres of the top layer of soil supports plant growth, turning and loosening of soil brings the nutrient rich soil to the top so that plant can use these nutrients. Thus, turning and loosening of soil is very important for cultivation of crops.

• Levelling : Tilled soil may have big blocks of soil (crumbs). Crumbs are broken down and the soil is levelled with wooden planks or iron leveller, the process is called levelling. Levelling is done for better sowing and irrigation.
  
  A plank used to level the soil

Sowing:

The process of putting the seeds in the soil is known as sowing. Before sowing, good quality seeds are selected.

• Selection of seeds : Healthy seeds sink and weak or insect eaten seeds float on water. Good quality, clean and healthy seeds are separated before sowing. Sowing can be done by - (i) Broadcasting : Seeds are sown by hand or manually. (ii) Traditional tool: The tool used traditionally for sowing seeds has shape like a funnel. The seeds are filled into the funnel, passed down through two or three pipes having sharp ends. These ends pierce into the soil and place seeds there. (iii) Seed drill : Seeds are sown by the seed drill with the help of a tractor. It saves time and labour. This tool sows the seeds uniformly at proper distance and depth. It ensures that seeds get covered by the soil after sowing. This protect the soil from being eaten by birds.
  
  Broadcasting

• Precautions during sowing seeds (i) Use good quality, healthy and disease-free seeds. (ii) The seeds should be sown at a particular depth under the soil. Seeds left on the surface of the soil may be carried or destroyed by the insects and the birds. Seeds placed deep into the soil may either fail to germinate or may fail to come out into the air on germination. (iii) Distance should be proper to avoid overcrowding. (iv) Enough water should be there in the soil.
• Transplantation: Firstly, seeds are sown in nursery and then the seedlings are shifted to the main field. This process is known as transplantation. It enables the farmers to select the healthier seedlings. e.g. Rice, Onion, Tomato, Brinjal and Chilli.
  

Give two reasons why seeds should be sown at correct distance?

Seeds should be sown at correct distance to avoid overcrowding. (i) If the seeds are too close they will not get enough water, sunlight and nutrients. (ii) If the seeds are too far apart, there is wastage of field space. (iii) Adding manure and fertilization.

Adding manure and fertilizers:

The substances which are added to the soil in the form of nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are called manure and fertilizers.

Manure:

Manure are organic substances, obtained from the decomposition of plant and animal wastes. Farmers have to add manure to the field to replenish the soil with nutrients, this process is known as manuring.

Sometimes manure is added to the soil before tilling. This helps in proper mixing of manure with soil. The soil is moistened before sowing. Note: Before sowing, some plants (e.g. guar, sun Hamp) are grown and then mulched by ploughing them in to the soil. These green plants thus turn into green manure.

• Advantages of manure: (i) It increases the number of friendly microbes. (ii) It improves the texture of soil by adding organic matter (humus). (iii) It increases soil fertility, water holding capacity and aeration. (iv) It reduces soil erosion. (v) It is cheap.
• Disadvantages of manure (i) They have less amount of nutrients as compared to fertilizers or not nutrient specific. (ii) Manures are bulky and not easy to store and transport.

Why are the earthworms known as farmer's friend?

Earthworms are called as farmer's friend because the burrowing action of earthworm helps to loosen the soil particles and improves the physical structure of soil by adding humus. Concepts

Fertilizers:

Fertilizers are chemicals which are rich in particular nutrients.

• Types of fertilizers (1) Nitrogenous : Sodium nitrate, Urea. (2) Phosphatic: Ammonium phosphate, super phosphate. (3) Potassium : Potassium sulphate. (4) Mixed : NPK, CAN (Calcium ammonium nitrate), ammonium sulphate, potash.
  
• Advantages of fertilizers (i) They are nutrient specific and required in small amounts. (ii) They are water soluble and absorbed by the plant easily. (iii) They are easy to store and transport.
• Disadvantages of fertilizers (i) Fertilizers can change the soil structure by killing the soil microbes. (ii) Excessive use of fertilizers has made the soil less fertile. (iii) Accumulation of fertilizers in water bodies causes eutrophication. The excessive growth of plants on the surface of water bodies due to excessive use of fertilizers in the field which flows into the water bodies with rainwater is called eutrophication.
• We should remember that excessive use of fertilizers should be avoided as it makes soil less fertile

Methods for maintaining soil fertility without use of fertilizers:

(i) Field fallow: The practice of leaving the field uncultivated for a season is called field fallow. (ii) Crop rotation: The practice of growing different crops alternately in the same field is called crop rotation. e.g. farmers use to grow legume as fodder in one season and wheat in the next season. This helps in the replenishment of the soil with nitrogen. (iii) Biofertilisers: Organisms which enrich the soil nutrients due to their biological activities are called biofertilizers. e.g. Rhizobium (bacteria), Nostoc and Anabaena (BGA-Blue Green Algae).

• Roots of leguminous plants bear root nodules. Root nodules houses Rhizobium, a nitrogen fixing bacteria. Nitrogen fixed by the bacterium is supplied as additional nitrogenous nutrition to the leguminous plant (host). In turn, the host plant provides shelter and food to the bacterium.

Differences between manures and fertilizers:

Irrigation :

The process of artificial supplying of water to the crop at different intervals is called irrigation. The time and frequency of irrigation varies from crop to crop, soil to soil and season to season. Sources of irrigation : Well, tube well, ponds, lakes, river, canal and dams.

Methods of irrigation

(a) Traditional methods of irrigation In this type of irrigation water is lifted from lake, well and canal by using following traditional ways like moat (pulley system), chain pump, dhekli, rahat (lever system). Pumps are commonly used for lifting water. Diesel, biogas, solar energy and electricity is used to run these pumps. The lifted water is allowed to run over the field. These methods are cheaper.

• Disadvantages of traditional ways of irrigation (i) They require more human labour and human efforts. (ii) They are less efficient. (iii) They are not useful for poor water regions.

(b) Modern methods of irrigation: The following modern ways of irrigation are used which help to conserve water.

• Sprinkler system (i) In this system, the perpendicular pipes having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to main pipeline at regular intervals. When water is allowed to flow through main pipeline under pressure with the help of a pump, it escapes from the rotating nozzle. (ii) It spreads water uniformly over crop plants and field. (iii) This method is useful for sandy soil and uneven land, where sufficient water is not available. (iv) It is an efficient system in the canal irrigated area of Haryana and Rajasthan. (v) It is very useful for lawns, coffee plantation and several other crops.
  
  Sprinkler system
• Drip System or Trickle system (i) It involves the use of pipes fitted with small tubes called emitters. The pipes are laid over or under the soil and emitters release water drop by drop around the roots of the plants. (ii) In this method water is not wasted at all. (iii) This method is a boon in poor water regions. (iv) This is the best irrigation technique for fruit crops, garden and trees.
  
  Drip system

Note: Fertigation is a method of applying fertilizers through drip irrigation. The situation of standing water in field due to excessive irrigation is called water logging. As a result of it, the roots fail to breathe and salinization occurs.

• Advantages of irrigation: Plants contain 90% water. It is important for proper growth and development of flowers, fruits and seeds of plants. (i) It maintains the moisture of soil. (ii) It helps in germination of seeds. (iii) It helps in supply of essential nutrients. Nutrients dissolved in water get transported to each part of plant. (iv) Water also protects the crop from both frost and hot air currents.
• Other irrigation systems in India: (i) Canal system : Canals receive water from the rivers. The main canals are divided into branches which are further divided into distributaries to cover maximum areas for irrigation. (ii) Tanks : Tanks are water storage reservoirs which store the run off water of small catchment area. (iii) Wells: (i) Dug well - Water is collected from water bearing strata. (ii) Tube well - Water is collected from deeper strata. (iv) River valley system : Due to heavy rainfall, many rivers valley are found in the Western Ghats and Karnataka. This results in higher run off and discharge flows in the rivers. To prevent this coffee, rubber and coconut are cultivated on the slopes of these valleys and single rice crop is grown at the bottom. (v) River lift system : Water is directly drawn from the river using pumps.

Why should watering be increased during summer?

The frequency of watering is higher in summer due to the increased rate of evaporation of water from the soil and the leaves.

Protection from weeds :

In the field, many other undesirable plants may grow naturally along with crop. These undesirable plants are called weeds. Removal of weeds or undesirable plants is called weeding. It can be done by khurpi (trowel). Weed can severely reduce crop yields by competing for light, water, space and nutrients. Some weeds interfere in harvesting and may be poisonous for animals and human beings. Some common weeds: Parthenium (Gajar grass), Convolvulus, Amaranthus (Chaulai), Chenopodium (Bathua), Xanthium (Gokhroo) and Dandelions, Cypernius rotundus (montha).

• Methods of weed control (i) Mechanical control: It can be done by ploughing, burning before sowing of seed and cutting of weeds before they produce flowers and seeds. Khurpi and seed drill is also used in uprooting of weeds. (ii) Chemical control: It can be done by spraying weedicides or herbicides (chemical which are used to kill the weeds). They do not damage the crops. The weedicides are diluted with water to the extent required and sprayed in the fields with sprayer. e.g. 2, 4-D (2, 4 - dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), 2, 4, 5-T (2, 4, 5 - trichlorophenoxyacetic acid), MCPA (methyl, chlorophenoxyacetic acid), Butachlor & (iii) Biological control: In this living organisms are used to destroy weeds. e.g. Cassia plant prevents the growth of Parthenium weed, Herbivorous fish (Carps) feeds on aquatic weeds (Hydrilla). Pesticides or biocides: These are chemical substances used to kill, control or repel pests.
  

Types of pesticides :

• Advantages of using pesticides: (i) They kill pests quickly. (ii) Increase food production. (iii) They are easy to store.
• Disadvantages of using pesticides: (i) They cause soil and water pollution. (ii) Residue left on the fruits & seeds is harmful for human consumption. (iii) They destroy even the useful insects.

Excessive use of pesticides can affect the chemical properties of soil as well as cause damage to the quality of crop produce.

• Preventive measures avoiding use of pesticides: (i) Crop rotation, multiple cropping and field fallow. (ii) Sowing healthy seeds and summer ploughing. (iii) Use of pest and disease resistant hybrid varieties of crop plant. (iv) Field also needs to be protected from grazing animals by raising wire fences and boundary wall. (v) Birds are scared away by raising scarecrows and beating of drums.

Do weedicides have any effect on the person handling the weedicide sprayer?

Yes, spraying of weedicide may affect the health of farmer, because weedicides are chemical substances which are harmful to farmer, so farmer should cover their nose and mouth with a piece of cloth during spraying of these chemicals.

Harvesting:

The cutting and gathering of crops after it is mature is called harvesting. It can be done manually by sickle or by a machine called harvester. (i) Many festivals are associated with harvesting season such as Baisakhi, Bihu, Onam, Pongal, Holi and Diwali, Nabanya. (ii) Many crops require special harvesting machines e.g., Cotton strippers (for cotton), corn pickers or huskers (for corn). (iii) Fruits and vegetables are generally hand-picked when ripe.

• Threshing: In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated from the chaff. This process is called threshing. It can be done by threshers.
• Combine: A combine machine can harvest and thresh at the same time.
• Winnowing: In this process, the grain-chaff mixture is gradually dropped on the ground from a height. The heavier seeds fall vertically down, while the lighter chaff is blown away by wind.
• Chaff: Chaff is the material consisting of seed covering and small pieces of stem & leaves.
  

Storage :

Proper storage is necessary to get seasonal food regularly throughout the year. Freshly harvested grains have more moisture. If freshly harvested grains are stored without drying, then they may get spoil and loose their germination capacity. Hence, before storing them the following precautions must be undertaken.

Following should be kept in consideration while doing storage of grains. (i) Grains should be moisture free and safe from insects, rats, and microorganisms. (ii) Grains must be properly dried in the sun to reduce the moisture in it. This prevents the attack by insects, pests, bacteria and fungi. (iii) Grains must be stored in jute bags or metallic bins. (iv) Store grains in silos, granaries and godowns with chemical treatment to protect them from pests like rat and insects. (v) Dried neem leaves can be used for storing food grains at home.

• Buffer stock: Surplus stock of grains which is preserved for emergencies like drought and floods is called buffer stock. Food grains are stored in large godowns by agencies like Food Corporation of India (FCI) and state ware housing corporations.
• Factors affecting stored food (i) Biotic factors : e.g. insects, micro-organisms, mites, birds, rodents and other animals. (ii) Abiotic factors : e.g.moisture, humidity and temperature.

4.0Animal husbandry:

Animal husbandry is the scientific managements of animal livestock. It includes various aspect such as breeding, feeding disease control.

The main elements of animal husbandry are : (i) Proper feeding (ii) Providing good shelter (iii) Proper health (iv) Proper breeding

• Cattle Farming Cattle husbandry is done for two purposes, milk production and draught labour for agricultural work like tilling and irrigation.

• Cattle feed consists of two components: (i) Roughage: It contains large amount of fibres which includes, fodder and legumes. (ii) Concentrate: It is a mixture of cereals like maize, oat, barley, jowar, grams, rice polish, cotton seeds, gram bran, molasses and oilseed cake moistened in water. These are rich in proteins, highly palatable and easily digestible.
  
  Concentrate

• Poultry The rearing and caring of birds for obtaining eggs and meat for the commercial purpose is known as poultry farming. (i) It includes chickens (fowls), ducks, geese, turkeys, guineafowls, peafowls, pigeons and quails. (ii) The egg laying poultry birds are called egger or layer, while the one reared for obtaining meat is called chicken or broiler.
• Fisheries The rearing of fish on a large scale is called pisciculture. (i) Fish is a rich source of proteins and oils. These are a good source of vitamin $A$ and vitamin-D. (ii) Fresh water fishes: Catla, Rohu and Mrigal. (iii) Marine fishes : Tuna, Cod and Pomfret, bombay duck, sardines, mackerel. (iv) The fish eggs are introduced into small ponds called hatcheries. In hatcheries, fries hatch out of eggs which are transferred to a larger culture pond where they get proper food, light and oxygen. The fishes are harvested when they attain the required size.

• Apiculture The rearing of honey bees for a large scale production of honey and bee wax, is known as apiculture. Bees are reared in wooden boxes for commercial production of honey called apiaries.

• Honey bee colony and social organization In a colony, there are three types of bees which are structurally and functionally different from one another, so polymorphism is associated with division of labour. These types are : (i) Queen bee : Queen bee lays eggs which hatch into larvae, which grows into pupae. (ii) Drone bee : Drones are smaller in size than the queen, and their function is to fertilize the queen. (iii) Worker bee : Worker bees look after young ones, collect nectar and pollen from flowers and make honey.
  

5.0Biology Diagrams made Easy

6.0Chapter At a Glance

7.0SOME BASIC TERMS

• Boardcasting: Sowing seeds manually.
• Nomadic : anything that involves moving around a lot.
• Penetration : to go through or into something.
• Germinate : to start growing.
• Seedling : young plant.
• Cultivar : a particular variety of plant whose characteristics have been controlled by people in the way it has bred.
• Manually : not done automatically or using an electronic system.
• Decomposition : to break something into smaller parts.
• Replenish : to replace what has been used up/make something full again.
• Over crowding : the presence of more people or things in a space than what is comfortable, safe or permissible.
• Silos: a large structure usually cylindrical used for storing grains.
• Granaries : a large building for storing grains.
• Organic : produced by natural materials.
• Precaution : something that you do now in order to avoid problems in future.
• Porous : allowing liquid or air to pass through.