Kingdoms, Kings and an Early Republic

"Between 600 BCE and 400 BCE, great changes were noticeable in the social, economic and political life of the people. Several large kingdoms came up. Let

1.0How some men became rulers

• Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so.
• Some of the rajas were probably chosen by the jana, the people.
• But, around 3000 years ago, we find some changes taking place in the ways in which rajas were chosen.
• Some men now became recognised as rajas by performing very big sacrifices.
• The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual.
• A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja's men.
• If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight.
• If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them.
• These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts.
• The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him.
• The raja was a central figure in these rituals.
• He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin.
• His charioteer, who was his companion in the battle field and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory.
• His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals.
• The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice.
• Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king.
• The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya, also brought gifts.
• However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals.

2.0Varnas

There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups.

3.0Janapadas

• The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas.
• The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot and settled down.
• Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas, such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh).
• They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals.
• They also grew a variety of crops - rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard.
• They made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red.
• One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware.
• As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns.
  
  Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food.

4.0Mahajanapadas

• About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas.
• Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified.
• This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them.
• Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed protection.
• It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities.
• Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king.
• Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning.
• Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared.
• This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this.
• The new rajas now began maintaining armies.
• Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year.
• Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins.
  

5.0Taxes

As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas, they started collecting regular taxes.

• Taxes on crops
• Taxes on craftsperson's
• Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce.
• Taxes on goods through trade.
• Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja.

6.0Changes in agriculture

• There were two major changes in agriculture around this time.
• One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced.
• Second, people began transplanting paddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields.
• This led to increased production, as many more plants survived.

7.0A closer look - (a) Magadha

• Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years.
• Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha.
• This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile.
• Parts of Magadha were forested.
• Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army.
• Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots.
• Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons.
• Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas.
• Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the northwest part of the subcontinent.
• Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years.
• Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna).
• More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror.
• Of course, he didn't conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas.
• When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused.
• They were scared, as they had heard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants.

8.0A closer look - (b) Vajji

• While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha.
• In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a Raja.
• These rajas performed rituals together.
• They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate.
• For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat.
• However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.
• Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas.
• Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers.

This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago.

9.0Ajatasattu and the Vajjis

Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as:

• They held full and frequent public assemblies.
• They met and acted together.
• They followed established rules.
• They respected, supported and listened to elders.
• Vajji women were not held by force or captured.
• Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages.
• Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely.

10.0Glossary

• Ashvamedha - The 'ashvamedha' (horse sacrifice) was a ritual used to recognise men as rajas. A horse was left to wander freely. If it wandered into another kingdom and the king of that kingdom stopped it, they had to fight. The 'raja' who succeeded in the challenge was recognised as stronger.
• Rituals - A religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed according to a prescribed order.
• Shudras - Shudra or Shoodra (Sanskrit: Sūdra) is the bottom varna of the four varnas of the Hindu varna system and social order in ancient India.
• Fortification - Fortification refers to the practice of building massive walls of wood, brick, or stone around a piece of land.
• Janapadas - Refer to the early villages that came up around the fertile area of the gangetic plains.

11.0MIND MAP