New Questions and Ideas

"When Jainism and Buddhism emerged, there were some other thinkers and philosophers who thought about various issues related to human life, life after death which have been recorded in the Upanishads."

The story of the Buddha

• Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago.
• The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya.
• When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge.
• He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers.
• He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment.
  
  Lord Buddha
• After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One.
• He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time.
• He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara.
• The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness.
• This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled).
• Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things).
• The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha.
• He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything.
• He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals.
• He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next.
• The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message.
• He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said.
  
  The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message.

1.0The story of Kisagotami

• Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died.
• She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life.
• A kind man took her to the Buddha.
• The Buddha said: "Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life."
• Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: "The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died."
• Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other - father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother - had died.

2.0Upanishads

• Around the time that the Buddha was preaching and perhaps a little earlier, other thinkers also tried to find answers to difficult questions.
• Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed.
• Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death.
• They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one.
• Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads.
• These were part of the later Vedic texts.
• Upanishad literally means 'approaching and sitting near' and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students.
• Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues.
• Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas.
• Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning, and participated in debates.
• Poor people rarely took part in these discussions.
• One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali.
• He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time.
• Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.

3.0Six Schools of Indian Philosophy

• Over centuries, India's intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy.
• These are known as Vaishesika, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa.
• These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively.
• These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country.
• German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers.
• However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other.

4.0Panini, the grammarian

• This was also the time when other scholars were at work.
• One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit.
• He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra.
• He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!).

5.0Jainism

• The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago.
• He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha.
• At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest.
• For twelve years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.
• He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes.
• They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings.
• "All beings," said Mahavira "long to live. To all things life is dear."
• Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit.
• There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used.
• For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi.
• Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives, begging for food.
• They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal.
• Also, they had to observe celibacy.
• And men had to give up everything, including their clothes.
• It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules.
• Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life.
• Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food.
• Jainism was supported mainly by traders.
• Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules.
• Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
• The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries.
• They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago

6.0The sangha

• Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge.
• They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha, an association of those who left their homes.
• The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka.
• From this we know that there were separate branches for men and women.
• All men could join the sangha.
• However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters.
• Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors.
• Women had to take their husbands' permission.
• Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives.
• They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours.
• That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer - beggar) and bhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another.
• They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha.
• Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.
• Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha.
• Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha.

7.0Viharas

• To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people.
• The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel.
• Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas.
• As time went on, many supporters of the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas.
• The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick.
• Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India.
  
  A cave hollowed out in the hills. This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters.
• Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king.
• The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis.
• In return, they taught the people.
• Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond.
• A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features.
• Earlier, the Buddha's presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs.
• For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree.
• Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila.
• The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas. These were supposed to be persons who had attained enlightenment.
• Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace.
• However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people.
• The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan.
• Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in.
• Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia.
• The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism, was more popular in these areas.

8.0Pilgrims

are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The bestknown of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them.

9.0Nalanda - A unique centre of learning

Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: "The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer."

10.0Glossary

• Gana: Gana is a group or assembly with many members and sometimes with many decision makers or rajas.
• Enlightenment - The process of gaining knowledge and understanding something or making somebody understand something clearly.
• Prakrit - Any of the ancient or medieval vernacular dialects of northern and central India that existed alongside or were derived from Sanskrit.
• Tanha - Is an important concept in Buddhism, referring to "thirst, desire, longing, greed", either physical or mental.
• Atman - One of the most basic concepts in Hinduism, the universal self, identical with the eternal core of the personality that after death either transmigrates to a new life or attains release (moksha) from the bonds of existence.
• Ahimsa - Means non-violence, not hurting or killing living beings.
• Bhikkhu - They were the members of Buddhist Sangha. They meditated most of their time and went to nearby cities and towns begging for food. They spread the teachings of Buddha among others and also helped the needy ones.

11.0MIND MAP