The French Revolution

"People from Paris attacked the Bastille early on July 14, 1789. Historians viewed this period of time as the start of a series of events that eventually resulted in the French king's execution many years later."

1.0Introduction

The concept of liberty, freedom and equality are commonly taken for granted in modern society. But we must constantly remind ourselves that these concepts have a past as well. You may read a small portion of that history by studying French Revolution. The French monarchy was abolished because of French revolution. A society built on privileges was replaced by a new form of government. During the revolution, the declaration of Human rights marks the beginning of the new era.

The notion that every person had rights and could assert equality entered a new political discourse. These concepts of freedom and equality arose as the cornerstones of new era, but in many nations, they were reinterpreted and rethought in varied ways.

Although the anti-colonial movement in India, China, Africa & South America created ground-breaking and unique ideas, they did so using a language that only became prevalent in the late eighteenth century.

2.0The French Revolution

On the morning of 14th July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The king had commanded troops to move into the city. Rumours spread that he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens. Some 7,000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a people's militia. They broke into several government buildings in search of arms.

Finally, a group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city and stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille, where they hoped to find hoarded ammunition. In the armed fight that followed, the commander of the Bastille was killed and the prisoners released - though there were only seven of them. Yet the Bastille was hated by all because it stood for the despotic power of the king. The fortress was demolished, and its stone fragments were sold in the markets to all those who wished to keep a souvenir of its destruction.

The days that followed saw more rioting both in Paris and the countryside. Most people were protesting the high price of bread. Much later, when historians looked back upon this time, they saw it as the beginning of a chain of events that ultimately led to the execution of the king in France, though most people at the time did not anticipate this outcome. How and why did this happen?

3.0French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century

• In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne of France. He was 20 years old and married to the Austrian princess Marie Antoinette.
• Upon his accession the new king found an empty treasury. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles.
• Under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from the common enemy, Britain. The war added more than a billion livres to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres. Lenders who gave the state credit, now began to charge 10 per cent interest on loans.
  
  Louis XVISo, the French government was obliged to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone.
• To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government offices or universities, the state was forced to increase taxes. Yet even this measure would not have sufficed.
• French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates, and only members of the third estate paid taxes.
• The society of estates was part of the feudal system that dated back to the Middle Ages. The term Old Regime is usually used to describe the society and institutions of France before 1789.

4.0French society during the Old Regime (before 1789)

• Peasants made up about 90 per cent of the population. However, only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated. About 60 per cent of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate.
• The members of the first two estates, that is, the clergy and the nobility, enjoyed certain privileges by birth.
• The most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the state. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants. Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord to work in his house and fields to serve in the army or to participate in building roads.
  
  Historical Provinces of France before (1789)

(a) Form of taxes

(b) The Struggle to Survive

So, the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So, the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest. This led to a subsistence crisis, something that occurred frequently in France during the Old Regime.

(c) How a Subsistence Crisis Happens

(d) A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges

The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups, termed the middle class. In addition to merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included professionals such as lawyers or administrative officials. All of these were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person's social position must depend on his merit. These ideas envisaging a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers such his model of government, as proposed by Montesquieu, was put into force in the USA, after the thirteen colonies declared their independence from Britain. The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important example for political thinkers in France.

The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. These were frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of those who could not read and write. The news that Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes to be able to meet the expenses of the state generated anger and protest the system of privileges.

5.0Causes of French Revolution:

(1) Social Cause: Division of society into 3 estates, Inequality & Unrest, Food crisis. (2) Political Cause: France was rules by an absolute monarchy. Government was facing severe financial crisis. (3) Economic Cause: Heavy taxes, Trade Restrictions & Poor Harvest. (4) Intellectual Cause: Eighteenth century was marked by a conscious refusal by French thinkers of the "Divine Right Theory"

An Englishman, Arthur Young, travelled through France during the years from 1787 to 1789 and wrote detailed descriptions of his journeys. He often commented on what he saw. 'He who decides to be served and waited upon by slaves, ill-treated slaves at that, must be fully aware that by doing so he is placing his property and his life in a situation which is very different from that he would be in, had he chosen the services of free and welltreated men. And he who chooses to dine to the accompaniment of his victims' groans,

6.0The Outbreak of the Revolution

In France of the Old Regime the monarch did not have the power to impose taxes according to his will alone. Rather he had to call a meeting of the Estates General which would then pass his proposals for new taxes. The Estate General was a political body to which the three Estates sent their representatives. However, the monarch alone could decide when to call a meeting of this body. The last time it was done was in 1614.

(a) Meeting of the Estates General

Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote. This time members of the third estate demanded that voting be now conducted by the assembly, where each member would have one vote. This was one of the democratic principles put forward by philosophers like Rousseau in his book 'The Social Contract'. When the king rejected this proposal, members of the third estate walked out of the assembly in protest.

(b) Formation of National Assembly & the Tennis Court Oath

Abbé Sieyès, originally a priest, wrote an influential pamphlet called. What is the Third Estate?

(c) Storming of the Bastille

In the countryside rumours spread from village to village that the lords of the manor had hired bands of brigands to destroy the ripe crops. Caught in a frenzy of fear, peasants in several districts seized hoes and pitchforks and attacked chateaux. Many nobles fled from their homes, many of them migrating to neighbouring countries. Manor - An estate consisting of the lord's lands and his mansion. Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would now on checked by a constitution. On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges. Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated. As a result, the government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion livres.

7.0France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791. Its main objective was to limit the powers of the monarch. Powers were now separated and assigned to different institutions - the legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy.

The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer's wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.

The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as 'natural and inalienable' rights, that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away.

The revolutionary journalist Jean-Paul Marat commented in his newspaper L'Ami du people (The friend of the people) on the Constitution drafted by the National Assembly: The task of representing the people has been given to the rich the lot of the poor and oppressed will never be improved by peaceful means alone. Here we have absolute proof of how wealth influences the law. Yet laws will last only if the people agree to obey them. And when they have managed to cast off the yoke of the aristocrats, they will do the same to the other of wealth.

Source: An extract from the newspaper L.Ami du people.

8.0The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

The figure on the right represents France, and on the left symbolises the law.

• Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
• The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; these are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
• The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
• Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.
• The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
• Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it. No man may be accused, arrested, or detained, except in cases determined by the law.
• Every citizen may speak, write, and print freely; he must take responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
• For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.
• Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance.

9.0Reading political symbols

Most men and women in the eighteenth century could not read or write. So, images and symbols were frequently used instead of printed words to communicate important ideas. The painting by Le Barbier uses many such symbols to convey the content of the Declaration of Rights. Blue-white-red are the national colours of France.

10.0France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

The situation in France continued to be tense during the following years. Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered secret negotiations with the King of Prussia. Rulers of other neighbouring countries too were worried by the developments in France and made plans to send troops to put down the events that had been taking place there since the summer of 1789. Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria.

Thousands of volunteers thronged from the provinces to join the army. They saw this as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies all over Europe. Among the patriotic songs they sang was the Marseillaise, composed by the poet Roget de L'Isle. It was sung for the first time by volunteers from Marseilles as they marched into Paris and so got its name. The Marseillaise is now the national anthem of France.

11.0Formation of Jacobin Club

The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. While the men were away fighting at the front, women were left to cope with the tasks of earning a living and looking after their families. Large sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society.

12.0Features of Jacobin club

The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of society. They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watchmakers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage workers.

Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre. A large group among the Jacobins decided to start wearing long striped trousers like those worn by dock workers. This was to set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of society, especially nobles, who wore knee breeches. It was a way of proclaiming the end of the power wielded by the wearers of knee breeches. These Jacobins came to be known as the sansculottes, literally meaning 'those without knee breeches. Women however were not allowed to do so. Sans-culottes men wore in addition the red cap that symbolised liberty.

In the summer of 1792, the Jacobins planned an insurrection of many Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food. On the morning of August 10, they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king's guards, and held the king himself as hostage for several hours. Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held. From now on all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got the right to vote.

The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21 September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. As you know, a republic is a form of government where the people elect the government including the head of the government. There is no hereditary monarchy. You can try and find out about some other countries that are republics and investigate when and how they became so. Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason. On 21 January 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde. The queen Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after.

(a) The Reign of Terror

The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror. Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. All those whom he saw as being 'enemies' of the republic - ex-nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own party who did not agree with his methods - were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If the court found them 'guilty' they were guillotined. The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. It was named after Dr Guillotine who invented it. Robespierre's government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices. Meat and bread were rationed. Peasants were forced to sell it at prices fixed by the government. The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden; all citizens were required to eat the pain d'égalité (equality bread), a loaf made of wholewheat. Equality was also sought to be practised through forms of speech and address. Instead of the traditional Monsieur (Sir) and Madame (Madam) all French men and women were henceforth Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen). Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks or offices. Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand moderation. Finally, he was convicted by a Court in July 1794, arrested and on the next day sent to the Guillotine.

(b) A Directory Rules France

What is liberty? Two conflicting views:

The revolutionary journalist Camille Desmoulins wrote the following in 1793. He was executed shortly after, during the Reign of Terror. 'Some people believe that Liberty is like a child, which needs to go through a phase of being disciplined before it attains maturity. Quite the opposite. Liberty is Happiness, Reason, Equality, Justice, it is the Declaration of Rights ... You would like to finish off all your enemies by guillotining them. Has anyone heard of something more senseless? Would it be possible to bring a single person to the scaffold without making ten more enemies among his relations and friends?'

On 7 February 1794, Robespierre made a speech at the Convention, which was then carried by the newspaper Le Moniteur Universel. Here is an extract from it: 'To establish and consolidate democracy, to achieve the peaceful rule of constitutional laws, we must first finish the war of liberty against tyranny .... We must annihilate the enemies of the republic at home and abroad, or else we shall perish. In time of Revolution a democratic government may rely on terror. Terror is nothing but justice, swift, severe and inflexible; ... and is used to meet the most urgent needs of the fatherland. To curb the enemies of Liberty through terror is the right of the founder of the Republic.'

13.0Did women have a Revolution?

During the Old Regime, most women of the third estate had to work for a living. They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables at the market, or were employed as domestic servants in the houses of prosperous people. Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only daughters of nobles or wealthier members of the third estate could study at a convent, after which their families arranged a marriage for them. Working women had also to care for their families, that is, cook, fetch water, queue up for bread and look after the children. Their wages were lower than those of men.

In 1789, French revolutionaries and market women converged at the palace of Versailles in what would become a crucial moment on the French Revolution.

To discuss and voice their interests' women started their own political clubs and newspapers. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of them. One of their main demands was that women enjoy the same political rights as men. Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold political office.

In the early days, the revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped improve the lives of women. Creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls, no forced marriage against their will. Marriage was made into a contract entered freely and registered under civil law. Divorce was made legal and could be applied for by both women and men. Women could now train for jobs, could become artists, or run small businesses.

During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women's clubs and banning their political activities. Many prominent women were arrested and several of them executed.

Women's movements for voting rights and equal wages continued through the next two hundred years in many countries of the world. The fight for the vote was carried out through an international suffrage movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The example of the political activities of French women during the revolutionary years was kept alive as an inspiring memory. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

The life of a revolutionary woman

14.0The Abolition of Slavery

The colonies in the Caribbean - Martinique, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo - were important suppliers of commodities such as tobacco, indigo, sugar, and coffee. Shortage of labour was met by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. The slave trade began in the seventeenth century. French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains. Branded and shackled, the slaves were packed tightly into ships for the three-month long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean. There they were sold to plantation owners. The exploitation of slave labour made it possible to meet the growing demand in European markets for sugar, coffee, and indigo. Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes owed their economic prosperity to the flourishing slave trade.

Throughout the eighteenth century there was little criticism of slavery in France. The National Assembly did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen whose incomes depended on the slave trade. It was finally the Convention which in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions. Ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery. Plantation owners understood their freedom as including the right to enslave African Negroes in pursuit of their economic interests. Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.

15.0The Revolution and Everyday Life

The years following 1789 in France saw many such changes in the lives of men, women, and children. The revolutionary governments took it upon themselves to pass laws that would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice. One important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the Bastille in the summer of 1789 was the abolition of censorship.

In the Old Regime all written material and cultural activities-books, newspapers, plays could be published or performed only after they had been approved by the censors of the king. Now the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right. Newspapers, pamphlets, books, and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside. They all described and discussed the events and changes taking place in France. Freedom of the press also meant that opposing views of events could be expressed. Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the medium of print. Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people. This was one way they could grasp and identify with ideas such as liberty or justice that political philosophers wrote about at length in texts which only a handful of educated people could read.

16.0Conclusion

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. He set out to conquer neighbouring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family.

Napoleon saw his role as a moderniser of Europe. He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system. Initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom for the people. But soon the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

Many of his measures that carried the revolutionary ideas of liberty and modern laws to other parts of Europe had an impact on people long after Napoleon had left.

17.0Legacy of the French Revolution

The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal systems were abolished. Colonised peoples reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a sovereign nation state. Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to the ideas coming from revolutionary France.

18.0MAP OF FRANCE

19.0Glossary

• Livre - Unit of currency in France, discontinued in 1794
• Clergy - Group of persons invested with special functions in the church
• Tithe - A tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce 4. Taille - Tax to be paid directly to the state
• Subsistence crisis - An extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered
• Anonymous - One whose name remains unknown
• Chateau (pl. chateaux) - Castle or stately residence belonging to a king or a nobleman
• Manor - An estate consisting of the lord's lands and his mansion
• Convent - Building belonging to a community devoted to a religious life
• Treason - Betrayal of one's country or government