Lead 

Lead (Pb) is a soft, silvery-white or greyish metal belonging to the periodic table's Group 14 (IVa). It is highly malleable, ductile, and dense but a poor conductor of electricity. Known since antiquity and regarded by alchemists as the oldest of metals, lead is highly durable and resistant to corrosion, as evidenced by the continued use of lead water pipes installed by the ancient Romans. The symbol Pb for lead comes from the Latin word plumbum.

1.0Introduction

Lead (Pb) is an element on the periodic table with an atomic number of 82. Humans have utilized this metal for thousands of years, dating back to 7000 BC. Lead is found in small quantities of minerals, except sulfide ores like galena (PbS), commonly used for global lead production.

Throughout history, lead was one of the first metals worked by humans and was often alloyed with other metals to create tools and weapons, such as swords and arrowheads.

Today, lead is a crucial component in lead-acid batteries widely used in cars and electronic devices. Its good thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance are valuable in industrial and construction applications.

2.0Physical Properties of Lead

• Lead is a soft, bluish-white metal.
• It is ductile, extremely malleable, and has a high density of 11.34 g/cm³, surpassing common metals like iron, copper, and zinc.
• Lead tarnishes when exposed to moist air, forming a dull appearance.
• It is highly corrosion-resistant but conducts electricity poorly.
• The melting point of lead is 606.61 K, and its boiling point is 2022 K.
• Lead has a heavier atomic weight of 207.2 g/mol.
• Despite its atomic weight, lead's ionization energy is surprisingly similar to that of tin.
• This similarity is due to the lanthanide contraction, which reduces atomic radii from hafnium onward, affecting electron shielding and ionization energies in lead.

3.0Chemical Properties of Lead

• Lead is exceptionally corrosion-resistant but tarnishes when exposed to air.
• Lead and lead oxides tend to form covalent bonds when reacting with acids and bases, demonstrating lead's weak metallic character.
• Lead isotopes are byproducts in the decay series of naturally occurring radioactive elements.
• Lead exhibits +2 and +4 oxidation states in its compounds.
• Lead dioxide (PbO₂) is a strong oxidizing agent capable of converting hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas:

PbO₂​ + 4HCl → PbCl_2​ + 2H_2​O + Cl_2​

• Lead reacts with sulfur when heated to form lead sulfide (PbS): 

Pb²⁺ + H₂​S → PbS + 2H⁺

 Chemical Reactions of Lead

1. Reaction with Air: A thin layer of lead oxide (PbO) protects the metallic lead surface. Lead reacts with oxygen in the air to form lead oxide only when heated  to 600-800 °C: 2Pb (s) +O₂​(g) ⇌ 2PbO (s)
2. Reaction with Water: Lead does not react with water in the absence of air. However, in the presence of air, lead reacts with water to form lead(II) hydroxide: 

2Pb (s) + 2H₂​O (l) + O₂​(g) → 2Pb(OH)₂​(s)

3. Reaction with Halogens: When heated, lead reacts strongly with chlorine to produce lead(II) chloride:

$Pb(s)+C{l}_2(g)\stackrel{\Delta }{\to }PbC{l}_2(s)$

• At normal temperatures, lead reacts with fluorine to form lead(II) fluoride: 

Pb (s) + F_2​(g) → PbF_2​(s)

4. Reaction with Acids:

• Due to the protective PbO layer, lead does not react with sulfuric acid.
• Lead reacts slowly with hydrochloric acid to form lead(II) chloride and hydrogen gas: 

Pb (s) + 2HCl (aq) ⇌ Pb²⁺(aq)+2Cl⁻(aq) + H₂​(g)

• With nitric acid, lead reacts to form lead(II) nitrate and nitrogen oxides: 

Pb (s) + 2HNO_3​(aq) ⇌ Pb²⁺(aq) +2NO³⁻​(aq) + H₂​(g)

4.0Compounds Of Lead 

• Significant lead compounds include lead monoxide (PbO) in the +2 state, lead dioxide (PbO₂) in the +4 state, and trilead tetroxide (Pb₃O₄), which also contains lead in the +4 state.
• Lead monoxide exists in litharge (alpha lead monoxide) and massicot. Litharge is stable below 488 °C (910 °F) and is a reddish or reddish-yellow solid with a tetragonal crystal structure.
• Lead(II) fluoride (PbF₂) forms when lead reacts with fluorine at room temperature. Lead(II) chloride (PbCl₂) forms with chlorine, though heating is necessary due to forming a passivating chloride layer.
• Lead(II) chalcogenides form when molten lead reacts with chalcogens.
• Inorganic lead(IV) compounds are rare and typically form only in highly oxidizing environments. Further oxidation of lead(II) oxide produces Pb₃O₄, a mixed oxide known as lead(II, IV) oxide (2PbO·PbO₂).

5.0Uses of Lead

Historical Uses: Lead has been used since Roman times in pipes, pewter, and paint. It was also used in pottery glazes, insecticides, hair dyes, and as an anti-knocking additive in petrol. These uses have largely been discontinued due to health risks, particularly for children.

Modern Uses: Despite its toxicity, lead is still widely used in various applications, including:

• Car Batteries
• Pigments
• Ammunition
• Cable Sheathing
• Weights (lifting, diving)
• Lead Crystal Glass
• Radiation Protection
• Solders 

Specialized Uses: Lead is used to store corrosive liquids in architecture, roofing, and stained glass windows.

6.0Effects Of Lead 

Health Effects:

• Lead is a harmful metal that can be inhaled or ingested, impacting almost every organ and system in the human body.
• Exposure to lead at 100 mg/m³ concentrations in the air is immediately dangerous to human life and health.
• Most ingested lead enters the bloodstream, where it disrupts enzyme functions.
• Lead can cross the blood-brain barrier by mimicking calcium, damaging the nervous system by:
• • Weakening the myelin sheaths of neurons.
  • Reducing neuron populations.
  • Obstructing neurotransmission pathways.
  • Slowing neuronal maturation.

Environmental Effects:

• Lead accumulates in soil, particularly in soils with high organic content, where it can persist for hundreds to thousands of years.
• Lead contamination in soil and water primarily occurs through the corrosion of lead-based paints and pipelines used in water transport systems.
• Lead disrupts soil functions in the environment, especially near highways and farms, where concentrations can be exceptionally high.
• Lead competes with other metals on plant surfaces, hindering photosynthesis and, at high concentrations, negatively affecting plant growth and survival.
• Contaminated soil and plants can introduce lead into the food chain, harming microorganisms and animals.