Subatomic Particles 

Subatomic particles are the particles that make up an atom. These particles include protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are the primary components, but there are also smaller, more fundamental particles like quarks and leptons. 

1.0Introduction

The concept of atoms as fundamental, indivisible particles dates back to early Indian and Greek philosophers around 400 B.C., who believed that matter could be divided only until reaching an ultimate, uncuttable unit called the atom, from the Greek word "a-tomio," meaning "non-divisible." These early ideas lacked experimental proof and lay dormant until revived in the nineteenth century.

In 1808, John Dalton introduced the first scientific atomic theory, proposing that atoms were the fundamental building blocks of matter. His theory successfully explained important laws such as the conservation of mass and constant composition, but it could not explain phenomena like the electrical charge generated by rubbing certain materials. Later experiments in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries revealed that atoms are composed of smaller subatomic particles, electrons, protons, and neutrons, challenging the indivisibility of atoms in Dalton’s model.

Protons

• Symbol: p or p⁺
• Discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1917.
• Charge: +1 (positive)
• Location: Found in the nucleus of an atom
• Mass: About 1.67×10⁻²⁷(slightly less than a neutron but much heavier than an electron)
• Role: Determines the atomic number and defines the element (e.g., an atom with 1 proton is hydrogen, with 2 is helium, etc.)

Neutrons

• Symbol: n
• Discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.
• Charge: 0 (neutral)
• Location: Found in the nucleus alongside protons
• Mass: Slightly heavier than a proton, around 1.675×10⁻²⁷ kg
• Role: Adds to the atomic mass and helps stabilise the nucleus; atoms with varying neutron numbers are isotopes of the same element

Electrons

• Symbol:e⁻
• Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897.
• Charge: -1 (negative)
• Location: Orbitals around the nucleus in an electron cloud
• Mass: Tiny, about 9.11×10⁻³¹ (approximately 1/1836 the mass of a proton)
• Role: Responsible for chemical bonds and interactions; determines the atom’s charge in ionised forms

2.0Fundamental Particles within Protons and Neutrons: Quarks

• Protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles; they are made of quarks.
• Quarks: There are six types (flavours) of quarks—up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.
• • Protons consist of two "up" quarks and one "down" quark.
  • Neutrons have two "down" quarks and one "up" quark.
• Quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, mediated by particles called gluons.

Other Fundamental Particles

1. Leptons

• Electrons are part of a group of fundamental particles called leptons.
• There are six types of leptons: electron, muon, tau (all with -1 charge) and their corresponding neutrinos (electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino) with no charge.
• Leptons do not participate in the strong nuclear force but are essential in weak atomic interactions and decay processes.

Additional Particles:

• Gluons are the force-carrying particles for the strong nuclear force, binding quarks within protons and neutrons.
• Photons: The force carrier for the electromagnetic force, mediating interactions between charged particles.
• Bosons: Fundamental particles that mediate forces, including the W and Z bosons (weak force) and the Higgs boson, responsible for giving other particles mass.

3.0Comparison of Subatomic Particles 

Subatomic particles are crucial to understanding the structure of matter, chemical interactions, and fundamental physics. Studying these particles reveals the complexities of atomic structure and the forces that govern matter at the most minor scales.