Which of the following is homosporous ?

Axial Skeleton

Skull me 8 bones cranium yani ki brain box form karti hai, 14 facial bones hoti hai, 1 hyoid bone jiske tongue bone bhi kehte hai and dono kaano me 3-3 ear ossicles hote hai.

Cranium :

1 frontal bone jo ki forehead and eye orbit ki roof bnati hai.

2 parietal bone cranium ki roof me situated hai.

1 occipital bone cranium ki back side me hoti hai jisme ke hole hota hai jiske hum foramen magnum kehte hai and issi hole ke through brain se spinal cord emergy hoti hai.

Issi bone me 2 condyles hote hai jo ki vertebral colum ki first bone yani ki atlas ke sath articulate karte hai yani ki join karte hai and yahi joint aapke cranium ko aapki spinal bones se jodta hai. Human ki occipital bone me 2 condyles hone ke karan humans ke skull ko dicondylic skull kaha jata hai.

2 temporal bones hoti hai right and left side ek ek. Yeah ear ke paas wali bones hai basically jiske roughly kanpatti bhi bol dete hai.

1 Ethmoid bone nasal cavity ki roof bnati hai and it gives rise to 2 nasal conchae jo ki nasal cavity me project karte hai.

1 Sphenoid bone hoti hai jo ki butterfly shaped bone hai and yeah bone basically baki sabhi cranial bones ke sath articulate karti hai. Issi me choti si cavity hoti hai jiske hum sells turcica bolte hai and issi cavity me pituitary gland situated hota hai.

Facial Bones :

2 Nasal bones nasal bridge form karti hai.

2 Infra nasal inferior nasal conchae bnati hai.

2 lacrymal bones eyes ki sides me hoti hai.

2 Palatine bones buccal cavity ki roof banti hai.

1 Vomer bone bhi buccal cavity ki roof me hi milti hai.

2 Zygomatic bones basically cheek bones kehlati hai.

Right and left side, dono taraf 1-1 upper jaw bone yani ki maxilla hoti hai.

1 Mandible bone lower jaw form karti hai. Mandibe is the only movable bone of the skull.

Hyoid bone tongue bone kehlati hai kyunki issi bone se tongue ka base attached hota hai. Yeah bone lower jaw and larynx ke beech hoti hai.

Craniostylic jaw suspension basically aisa jaw suspension hai jisme upper jaw immovable hota hai yani ki fixed hota hai kyunki it articulates with temporal bones.

Vertebral Column
Adults me 26 vertebrae hoti hai and children me 33.

Yeah straight nhi hota rather S shape ke curves hote hai. Total 4 curves hote hai which corresponds to 4 different regions of the spine. Inme se 2 curves primary hote hai jo ki jab baby deliver hota hai toh formed hote hai lekin baki ke 2 curves jinko hum secondary curves bolte hai wo birth ke baad development ke sath bante hai and inhi curves ke birth par na hona hi karan hai ki chota baby shuru ke kuch mahine tak apna head stable nhi kar pata toh we have to hold him carefully supporting his head and lower spine.

Spine ke 4 regions hai : cervical (neck area), thoracic (thoracic cavity wala), lumbar (lower spine) and pelvic region.

Thoracic and pelvic curves primary hote hai jabki cervical and lumbar curves secondary hote hai.

Children me 7 cervical vertebrae hoti hai, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar, 5 sacrum bones and 4 coccygeal bones. Toh inko hum represent karte hai by :`C_7T_(12)L_5S_5Co_4`

Adult me development ke time sacrum ki paancho ek single bone me fuse hojati hai and charo coccygeal bone bhi fuse karke ek single coccyx bna leti hai toh adult ka vertebral formula hua : `C_7T_(12)L_5S_1Co_1`

The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, supports the head and serves as the point of attachment for the ribs and musculature of the back.

Har vertebrae me ek centrum yani ki body part hota hai and kuch spinal processes neural canal ko enclose karti hai. Issi neural canal ke through spinal cord (nervous tissue) travel karta hai. Centrum basically notochord se hi develop hota hai. Jo processes nikalti hai wo basically kis direction me project karti hai unke basis pe unko naam dedete hai jaise ki transverse processes, spinous processes etc. yeah apne kaam ka nahi hai.

Har vertebrae ki upper side pe superior zygapophyses hote hai dono taraf and lower side par 2 (right and left) zygapophyses hote hai. Ek vertebrae ka inferior zygapophyses next/neeche wali vertebrae ke superior zygapophyses ke sath articulate karta hai.

Humans me centrum ka upper and lower part flat hota hai toh aisi vertebrae ko hum amphiplatyan vertebrae bolte hai.

Transverse processes me vertebral arteries ke passage ke liye foramen transversarium hote hai lekin yeah 7th vertebrae me absent hota hai.

Cervical Vertebrae

`rarr` Cervical vertebrae ki jo spinous process hoti hai wo bifid hoti hai and 3rd-6th are typical vertebrae jabki 1st, 2nd and 7th are atypical. Atypical ka matlab hai ki general ya usual structure se kuch alag hota hai inme.
`rarr` Pehli cervical vertebrae atlas ke naam se jani jati hai. Yeah ek ring shaped bone hai jisme centrum reduced hota hai and spinous process nahi hoti. Iss bone me occipital bone se 2 condyles se articulate karne ke liye 2 facets hote hai. Another unique feature is the presence of odontoid fossa jo ki 2nd vertebral bone se articulate karega. Yeah head ki YES movement ke liye responsible hai.
`rarr` 2nd cervical vertebrae axis kehlati hai. Head ki NO movement me issi ka role hota hai jo ki basically rotatory movement hai atlas and axis joint ki. Iss vertebrae ka unique feature yeah hai ki iske centrum se odontoid process nikalti hai jo ki atlas bone me odontoid fossa ke sath articulate karti hai. Isme transverse processes hoti hai.
`rarr` 7th vertebrae ka unique feature yeah hai ki yeah sabse largest cervical bone hai and isliye isko vertebrae prominens naam dia gya hai. Iski spinous process bifid nahi hoti rather ek tubercle me end hoti hai. Another feature is ki isme transversarium absent hote hai.

Sternum & Ribs :

Sternum breast bone kehlati hai and yeah ek dagger shaped bone hai. Main 2 parts hai : upper manubrium/prosternum jo ki short part hai and lower elongated part is mesosternum. Issi mesosternum me ribs ke articulation ke liye facets hote hai and it ends into a xiphoid process.

Ribs ke 12 pairs hote hai humans me and yeah thoracic cavity ko protect karte hai. Ribs are bicephalic yani ki yeah dono ends se articulate karti hai. Coastal cartilage ribs to sternum se jodta hai.
`rarr`Ribs ko further 3 types me divide kia ja sakta hai : true ribs, false ribs and floating ribs.
`rarr` true ribs ko hi vertebro-sternal ribs kehte hai kyunki yeah ek end se thoracic vertebrae se articulate karti hai and dusre end se sternum se. Pehle 7 pair ko true ribs mana gya hai. First rib front me manubrium se sath articulate karti hai jabki 2-6th ribs mesosternum ke sath articulate karti hai. 7th rib mesosternum and xiphoid process se articulate karti hai.
`rarr` False ribs ko vertebr0-chondrial ribs kaha jata hai and is category me 8th-10th ribs aati hai kyunki yeah front side me 7th rib ke costal cartilage se articulate karti hai.
`rarr` 11th and 12th rib ko floating ribs kaha jata hai kyunki inka sternal end free hota hai and yeah keval backside se vertebral column se hi judi hui hoti hai.

Types of Vertebrae

Amphocoelous aisi vertebrae hai jinka centrum dono ends se concave hota hai. Ex : vertebrae of cartilaginous fishes and 8th vertebrae of frog.

Procoelous aisi vertebrae hai jinke centrum ka anterior end concave hota hai and posterior end convex. Ex : typical vertebrae of frog and vertebrae of lizard.

Opisthocoelous aisi vertebrae hoti hai jinka centrum anterior end se convex hota hai jabki concavity posterior end me aati hai. Ex : vertebrae of urodela.

Acoelous aisi vertebrae hoti hai jinme dono ends pe hi concavity nahi hoti kinda flat. Ex : 9th vertebrae of frog, free caudal vertebrae of pigeon.

Amphiplatayan vertebrae me centrum dono taraf se flat hota hai. Jaise ki human ki vertebrae jo ki intervertebral cartilaginous discs se separated hoti hai.

Appendicular Skeleton :

Pectoral Girdle :

Pectoral girdle 2 hai : ek rhs pe and dusra Lhs pe. Ek girdle me ek scapula yani ki shoulder bone hoti hai and ek clavicle yani ki collar bone hoti hai. Scapula ek triangular flat bone hai jo kamar ke upper part me located and it is superficial to the ribs. Yani ki ribs ke uper hai. Toh iski location dorsally hui between 2nd and 7th rib. Coracoid process ek bony hook shaped structure hota hai scapula pe jo project karta hai anterolaterally from the superior aspect of the scapular neck. Yeah process kafi sare ligaments and tendons ka anchor point hai. Scapula me glenoid cavity hoti hai jhaan upper arm bone yani ki humerus bone ka head articulate karta hai and this is known as glenohumeral joint or shoulder joint.

Clavicle : Clavicle anterior side present hoti hai jo sternum ke manubrium se articulate karti hai at the sternoclavicular joint and scapula se articulate karti hai at the acromioclavicular joint. Iski shape S letter jaisi hai.

Upper Extremities

Humans ke 2 forelimbs hai dono me 30-30 bones hoti hai which are 1 humerus upper arm me + 1 radius.1 ulna forearm me + 8 carpals/wrist bones wrist me + 5 metacarpals (palm bones) + 14 phalanges (pancho ungliyon ki haddiyan) hath me.

Humerus ko hi funny bone bhi bol dete hai. Iska head golf ball jaisa hota hai jo ki scapula ki socket like glenoid cavity se articulate karke ball and socket joint bnata hai which we eill be discussing separately.

Forearm ki radius choti wwali bone hai jo ki towards thumb located hai. Ulna bone longer hai and yeah little finger ki taraf located hai. Ulna bone ke (kohni ke taraf) olecranon process me end hoti hai. Yahi olecranon process elbow ki prominence form karti hai jiske hum touch bhi karke mehsoos bhi kar sakte hain. In contrast to the ulna, the radius is narrow at its proximal end and widens at its distal end.

Wrist me 8 carpals hote hai jo ki 2 rows me fitted hai. Proximal row me 4 carpals and 4 carpals distal row me. Har carpal ka different name hai but we don’t have to remember their names.

Thumb yani ki pollex ko chor kar har digit me 3-3 bones hoti hai jinko phalanges kehte hai. Thumb me keval 2 bones hoti hai. Phalangeal formula is : 2,3,3,3,3

Pelvic Girdle

Pelvic girdle coxa naam ki bone se bna hua hai toh we have 2 coxa bones : right side wali and left side wali. Issi coxa bone ko innominate bone bhi keh dete hai and yeah 3 bones : Ilium, Ischium & Pubis ke fusion se bnti hai.

Side view dekhenge toh upperpart Ilium bone (largest of all three bones) se banta hai, anterior part me pubis bone hoti hai and posterior part me ischium bone hai jo ki most strongest and thickest bone hai. Coxa ya fir hip bones me pubic bone ka part, anteriorly join karta hai and form karega pubic symphysis naam ke joint ko.

Acetabulum ek depression hai (socket like) jisme thigh bone yani ki femur bone ka head fir hokr ball and socket joint bnata hai.

Lateral view me hi dekhenge toh acetabulum ke neeche ek hole dikhta hai jiske obturator foramen kehte hai and it is surrounded by ischium and pubis bone.

Dono Ilium bones peeche ki taraf sacrum se join karti hai and form karengi sacroiliac joint.

Lower Extremities

Femur longest, heaviest nad strongest bone in the body. Proximal end se yeah acetabulum me articulate karegi and distal end ki taraf se yeah tibia and patella se articulate karti hai. Yeah ek replacing bone hai jo ki cartilage ko bone se replace karne ke baad banti hai. Other such bones in Human body are : humerus, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula and carpels.

Patella bone ko kneecap bhi bola jata hai. Yeah ek sesamoid bone hai jo tendon ke ossification se banti hai. It develops from tendon of quadriceps femoris muscle. Patella bone ka ligament patellar ligament kehlata hai and wo patella ko tibial tuberosity se join karwata hai.

Tibia shin bone kehlati hai jo ki leg ki medial, larger weight bearing bone hai.

Fibula is parallel and lateral to the tibia, but it is smaller and it does not articulate with femur bone. Ankle joint ko stablize karne me help karti hai.

Ankle me 7 bones hoti hai jinko tarsals bola jata hai. Inn 7 tarsals me se talus, the most superior tarsal bone, is the only bone of the foot that articulates with the fibula and tibia.

Calcaneum (yeah bhi tarsal bone hi hai) is the heel bone.

Foot ki sole me 5 metatarsals hoti hai.

Phalanges basically great toe/hallux me 2 bones hoti hai jabki baki toes me 3-3 bones hoti hai.

Which one of the following is homosporous with exo- scopic embryogeny?

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