Give the nature of bonding in the following solids :
(i) ice (ii) iodine (iii) copper (iv) calcium oxide.

Answer

To determine the nature of bonding in the given solids, we will analyze each one based on their molecular structure and the types of forces that hold them together.

### Step-by-Step Solution:

1. **Ice (H₂O)**
- Ice is a solid form of water. In ice, water molecules are held together by strong hydrogen bonds.
- These hydrogen bonds occur due to the attraction between the positively charged hydrogen atoms of one water molecule and the negatively charged oxygen atoms of neighboring water molecules.
- The presence of these hydrogen bonds leads to an open cage-like structure in ice, making it less dense than liquid water.
- **Nature of Bonding**: Ice is a hydrogen-bonded molecular solid.

2. **Iodine (I₂)**
- Iodine exists as diatomic molecules (I₂) and is classified as a non-polar molecular solid.
- The intermolecular forces in solid iodine are very weak van der Waals forces (London dispersion forces) due to the non-polar nature of the iodine molecules.
- These weak forces allow the iodine molecules to pack together in a solid form but do not create strong bonding.
- **Nature of Bonding**: Iodine is a non-polar molecular solid.

3. **Copper (Cu)**
- Copper is a metal and consists of a lattice of positively charged copper ions surrounded by a "sea" of delocalized electrons.
- The metallic bonding in copper is characterized by the strong attraction between the positively charged metal ions and the delocalized electrons.
- This type of bonding gives metals their characteristic properties such as electrical conductivity and malleability.
- **Nature of Bonding**: Copper is a metallic solid.

4. **Calcium Oxide (CaO)**
- Calcium oxide is formed from the ionic bonding between calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and oxide ions (O²⁻).
- The strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the positively charged calcium ions and negatively charged oxide ions result in a stable ionic lattice structure.
- This strong ionic bonding contributes to the high melting and boiling points of calcium oxide.
- **Nature of Bonding**: Calcium oxide is an ionic solid.

### Summary of the Nature of Bonding:
- (i) Ice: Hydrogen-bonded molecular solid
- (ii) Iodine: Non-polar molecular solid
- (iii) Copper: Metallic solid
- (iv) Calcium Oxide: Ionic solid